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Most micro turbines start with propane, burn for a few seconds before introducing the jet fuel by solenoid. They require incredibly quick reflexes and very expensive equipment, so are usually reserved for the expert. In the U.
Also, the AMA requires model aviation enthusiasts who wish to operate miniature gas turbine powered RC model aircraft, to be certified in the operation of the type of gas turbine engine, and all aspects of safety in operating such a turbine-powered model aircraft, that they need to know in flying their model. Many manufactures sell airframes such as Yellow Aircraft and Skymaster.
Smaller turbines put out about 12 lbf 53 N of thrust, while larger microturbines can put out as much as 45 lbf N of thrust.
Radio-control jets require an onboard FADEC full authority digital engine control controller; this controls the turbine, as on a full-size aircraft. RC jets also require electrical power. There is also a LiPo for the onboard servos that control ailerons, elevator, rudder, flaps and landing gear.
Of much less complexity are the types of RC jet aircraft that actually use an electric motor-driven ducted fan instead to power the aircraft.
So called "EDF" models can be of much smaller size, and only need the same electronic speed controller and rechargeable battery technology as propeller-driven RC electric powered aircraft use. Radio-controlled jet aircraft are produced in the colors of various airlines. Sports planes are planes capable of performing aerobatic maneuvers involving aircraft attitudes that are not used in normal flight.
Typical aerobatic maneuvers include inside loop, outside loop, Immelmann turn, inverted flight, stall turn, slow roll and Cuban 8. Simply put, 3D flight is the art of flying a plane below its stall speed the speed at which the wings of the plane can no longer generate enough lift to keep the plane in the air. These elements allow for spectacular aerobatics such as hovering, 'harriers', torque rolling, blenders, rolling circles, flat spins, and more; maneuvers that are performed below the stall speed of the model.
The type of flying could be referred to as 'on the prop' as opposed to 'on the wing', which would describe more conventional flight patterns that make more use of the lifting surfaces of the plane. These generally make use of small brushless motors often outrunners, but also geared inrunners and lithium polymer batteries Li-Po. There are also many larger 3D designs designed for two and four stroke glow engines, two stroke gas engines and large electric power systems.
Racers are small propeller -driven aircraft that race around a 2, 3, or 4 pylon track. The goal is for the planes to be not only inexpensive, but closely matched in performance. This places the emphasis on good piloting. APRA is a version of with specific rules designed for consistency. The difference is in engine performance and construction.
The planes are primarily made of fiberglass with composites used at high load points. Wings are often hollow to save weight. All aircraft must meet a minimum weight. A lighter wing moves more of the weight closer to the center of gravity. This requires less control deflection and its resulting drag to change the planes attitude. They also use. They have been designed to put out the maximum amount of power at a specific RPM using a specific fuel. Nelson manufactures the most predominantly used engine.
Q40 is the highpoint of pylon racing, as their aircraft resemble full-size race planes. They are not limited to the simple shapes that Q planes are, which have much cleaner aerodynamics and less wing area. They use the same basic Nelson engine used in , but the engine is tuned to turn a much smaller prop at a much higher rpm.
Because of their limited wing area however, Q40 planes must fly a larger arc around the pylons to conserve energy. Although faster, they ultimately fly a larger course.
The best times for a 10 lap 3 pylon Q40 race are very close to the same in F3D is the fastest class in "glow-powered" pylon racing. The maximum engine displacement is. There are airframe limits on wing thickness, fuselage dimensions, and weight for safety reasons.
Park flyers are small, primarily electric-powered planes, so named because their size enables some of them to be operated within the confines of a large public park. The smallest park flyers are called micro planes, and are slow and docile enough to fly within an enclosed area such as a gymnasium or even a living room. Because of their size and relative ease of setup, ready-to-fly park flyers are among the most popular class of RC aircraft for beginners and advanced pilots alike. Advanced electronic and material technologies have even brought forth high-performance, park flyer sized " 3D-flyers ", or fully aerobatic aircraft capable of extreme high g maneuvers and even nose-up hovering.
Once the exclusive realm of giant scale , 3D flight is now possible both indoors and out with certain park flyer aircraft. Park flyers have created an inexpensive and convenient way for beginners to get involved in the hobby of RC flight. The modern materials used in the simple construction of these aircraft make field repairs possible even after significant crash damage.
Their small size and quiet operation make it possible to fly them in residential areas. Radio-controlled helicopters , although often grouped with RC aircraft, are in a class of their own due to the vast differences in construction, aerodynamics and flight training.
Hobbyists will often venture from planes, to jets and to helicopters as they enjoy the challenges, excitement and satisfaction of flying different types of aircraft. Some radio-controlled helicopters have photo or video cameras installed and are used for aerial imaging or surveillance.
Newer "3d" radio-control helicopters can fly inverted with the advent of advanced swash heads, and servo linkage that enables the pilot to immediately reverse the pitch of the blades, creating a reverse in thrust.
Some RC models take their inspiration from nature. These may be gliders made to look like a real bird, but more often they actually fly by flapping wings. Spectators are often surprised to see that such a model can really fly.
These factors as well as the added building challenge add to the enjoyment of flying bird models, though some ARF almost-ready-to-fly models are available. Flapping-wing models are also known as ornithopters , the technical name for an aircraft whose driving airfoils oscillate instead of rotate. Since about , new, more sophisticated toy RC airplanes, helicopters, and ornithopters have been appearing on toy store shelves. This new category of toy RC distinguishes itself by:. As of , the toy class RC airplane typically has no elevator control.
This is to manage costs, but it also allows for simplicity of control by unsophisticated users of all ages. The downside of lack of elevator control is a tendency for the airplane to phugoid. To damp the phugoid oscillation naturally, the planes are designed with high drag which reduces flight performance and flying time. The lack of elevator control also prevents the ability to "pull back" during turns to prevent altitude loss and speed increase.
Crashes are common and inconsequential. Throttle control and turning reversal when flying toward the pilot rapidly become second-nature, giving a significant advantage when learning to fly a more costly hobby class RC aircraft. First-person view FPV flight is a type of remote-control flying that has grown in popularity in recent years, and is a distinguishing feature of a drone.
It involves mounting a small video camera and television transmitter on an RC aircraft and flying by means of a live video down-link, commonly displayed on video goggles or a portable LCD screen. When flying FPV, the pilot sees from the aircraft's perspective, and does not even have to look at the model. As a result, FPV aircraft can be flown well beyond visual range, limited only by the range of the remote control, video transmitter and endurance of the aircraft.
Video transmitters typically operate at a power level between mW and mW. The most common frequencies used for video transmission are MHz, 1. Sophisticated setups are capable of achieving a range of 20�30 miles or more. A basic FPV system consists of a camera, video transmitter, video receiver, and a display. More advanced setups commonly add in flight controller, including on-screen display OSD , auto-stabilize and return-to-home RTL functions.
RTL Rc Kits For Model Boats function is usually applied with failsafe in order to allow the aircraft to fly back to the home point on its own in when signal lost. Some advanced controllers can also navigate the drone using GPS. On-board cameras can be equipped with a pan and tilt mount, which when coupled with video goggles and "head tracking" devices creates a truly immersive, first-person experience, as if the pilot was actually sitting in the cockpit of the RC aircraft.
The most commonly chosen airframes for FPV planes are models with sufficient payload space for larger battery and large wings for excellent gliding ability. Suitable brushless motors are installed as the most common pushers to provide better flight performance and longer flight time. Pusher-propeller planes are preferred so that the propeller is not in view of the camera. Flying wing designs are also popular for FPV, as they provide a good combination of large wing surface area, speed, maneuverability, and gliding ability.
Because these restrictions prohibit flying beyond the visual range of the pilot an ability which many view as the most attractive aspect of FPV , most hobbyists that fly FPV do so outside of regular RC clubs and flying fields.
There are various ways to construct and assemble an RC aeroplane. Various kits are available, requiring different amounts of assembly, different costs and varying levels of skill and experience. Some kits can be mostly foam or plastic, or may be all balsa and ply wood.
Construction of wood kits typically consists of using formers and longerons for the fuselage and spars and ribs for the wing and tail surfaces.
Many designs use solid sheets of balsa wood instead of longerons to form the fuselage sides and may also use expanded polystyrene for the wing core covered in a wood veneer , often balsa or obechi.
Such designs tend to be slightly heavier but are typically easier to build. The lightest models are suitable for indoor flight, in a windless environment. Some of these are made by bringing frames of balsa wood and carbon fiber up through water to pick up thin plastic films, similar to rainbow colored oil films.
The advent of " foamies ," or craft injection-molded from lightweight foam and sometimes reinforced with carbon fiber , have made indoor flight more readily accessible to hobbyists. EPP Expanded Polypropylene foam planes are actually even bendable and usually sustain very little or no damage in the event of an accident, even after a nose dive.
Some companies have developed similar material with different names, such as AeroCell or Elapor. Amateur hobbyists have more recently developed a range of new model designs utilizing corrugated plastic , also sold as Coroplast. Fans of the SPAD concept tout increased durability, ease of building, and lower priced materials as opposed to balsa models, sometimes though not always at the expense of greater weight and crude appearance.
Flying models have to be designed according to the same principles as full-sized aircraft, and therefore their construction can be very different from most static models. RC planes often borrow construction techniques from vintage full-sized aircraft although they rarely use metal structures.
Ready to fly RTF airplanes come pre-assembled and usually only require wing attachment or other basic assembly. Typically, everything that is needed is provided, including the transmitter, receiver and battery.
RTF airplanes can be up in the air in just a few minutes and have all but eliminated assembly time at the expense of the model's configuration options. Almost ready to fly ARF or ARTF airplanes require final assembly typically including engine and fuel tank installation or electric motor, speed controller, and battery , servo and pushrod installation, control surface attachment, landing gear attachment, and sometimes require gluing the left and right wing halves together.
The fuselage, wing halves, tail surfaces and control surfaces are already constructed. ARF airplanes typically only include the airframe and some accessories such as pushrods, fuel tank, etc.
Therefore, the power system glow engine, gas engine, or electric motor and any required accessories and radio system servos, transmitter, receiver, and battery must be purchased separately. Because they do not come with a transmitter, they must be bound to one instead. This is desirable for flyers that already own a transmitter. There are several incompatible radio standards often found with Bind-N-Fly models.
A programmable transmitter which can store custom parameters for multiple models is desirable so that trim and other advanced functions do not need to be altered when switching models. Receiver Ready Rx-R models are similar to BNF models in that they are mostly assembled but let the user add their own receiver and battery, avoiding the need to deal with transmitter incompatibilities.
Plug-N-Play radio control planes are the perfect answer for aeromodellers who want to buy and fly more than one RTF RC plane, but don't want to have a separate transmitter for each one. Wood kits come in many sizes and skill levels. The wood, typically balsa and light ply, may either be cut with a die-cut or laser. Laser cut kits have a much more precise construction and much tighter tolerances , but tend to cost more than die-cut kits. Wood kits include the raw material needed to assemble the airframe, a construction manual, and full-size plans.
Assembling a model from plans or a kit can be very labor-intensive. In order to complete the construction of a model, the builder typically spends many hours assembling the airframe, installing the engine and radio equipment, covering it, sometimes painting it, installing the control surfaces and pushrods, and adjusting the control surfaces travels. The kit does not include necessary tools, so they must be purchased separately.
Care must be taken when building models from wood kits since construction flaws may affect the model's flying characteristics or even result in structural failure. Smaller balsa kits will often come complete with the necessary parts for the primary purpose of non-flying modeling or rubber band flight.
These kits will usually also come with conversion instructions to fly as glow gas powered or electric and can be flown free-flight or radio-controlled. Converting a kit requires additional and substitution parts to get it to fly properly such as the addition of servos, hinges, speed controls, control rods and better landing gear mechanisms and wheels.
Many small kits will come with a tissue paper covering that then gets covered with multiple layers of plane dope which coats and strengthens the fuselage and wings in a plastic-like covering. Stainless steel kelp blocking plates forward of fins tied to bonding system. System is without winglet assembly Two 2 Maxwell VWC windlasses with dual station controls for each. Each windlass to have band brakes Hydraulics cooled by diverted raw water through two 2 heat exchangers.
One 1 on the return side and one 1 on the case drain side. Staterooms One 1 supply blower for master, guest staterooms, crew 5 total. Exhaust air from each stateroom routed to berthing passageway Blower located to insure minimal noise in stateroom. Hydraulic Lines: Tubing O. Emergency Tiller: To attach to top of starboard rudderpost and stow in lazarette - fabricated of aluminum with 2" 5.
The emergency tiller will be operated from the lazarette. Sheated in foil shaped FRP. Rudder Carrier Shoes: Two piece fabricated L stainless steel. Main piece fastened to hull by rivets. Aft piece removable so that rudder can be removed. Zinc plate attached to shoe. Water Tanks Number and capacity: Two 2 tanks totaling gallons liters Material: Fiberglass from male molds with FDA approved gel coated interior Inspection plates: Appropriately positioned and sized for access Tanks air tested to 3.
To comply with all ABYC codes for diesel fuel tanks. A light and audible alarm in wheelhouse if excessive water is present. Reservoir fitted with five 5 draw spigots for mains, two 2 generators, and spare - mounted at lower level of reservoir but above water sensing probe. All returns from mains, and generator plumbed into day tank via a return manifold Sight gauges provided for all four 4 fuel tanks plus day tank - Sea Tru Seafelex Each tank to be air tested to 3.
Transfer system can also polish fuel in day tank and return to day tank if needed. One fuel pump is plumbed as a back up pump.
Trident model hose. Water Hoses Cold water: Hose from water tanks to water pump should be reinforced suction rated hose. Hose from pump to accumulator should be pressure rated reinforced hose. Located in forward bilge area. Thru Hulls Below water line: Groco bronze body flanged with stainless steel balls and Teflon seats Thru Hulls Above water line: Groco bronze body flanged with stainless steel balls and Teflon seats Grounding wire: 6 gauge green wire Each thru hull to have a clearly visible tag indicating use Each thru hull to be easily accessible Thru-hulls which pass thru the boot stripe ate to be stainless steel.
Supply manifold furnished with isolation ball valves from each fresh water tank, to each fresh water pump, and from the water maker. Discharge manifold furnished with isolation valves from each pump. Plumbing Fixtures Head sinks - eight 8 total: owner's x two 2 , salon day head , guest lowers.
OC gallons Liters per minute plumbed to four 4 water tight compartments. Ultra Senior in each bilge compartment. Fresh Water Outlets on the foredeck, aft deck, flybridge and one 1 in engine room using stainless steel spigots. All sinks, showers, and air conditioning condensate to drain to tank.
All drains to have "P" traps and sloped down hill run to tank. Tank equipped with electric and manual discharge pumps, level switch for pump starting, and level monitor system Electric discharge pump: Headhunter Tortuga 1P discharge pump.
Pump inlet to draw with 1" 2. Individual Raw Water Inlet thru hulls per item requiring raw water Generators, water maker s intake, anchor wash and air conditioning Each inlet to have Groco strainer.
Pump is controlled by a three 3 position switch mounted at pump location. Engine side of manifold to include isolation valves for each engine. House shore power is fed through a 12KVA isolation transformer. The air conditioning may be operated from the house shore power or from its own dedicated shore power inlet which is equipped with a galvanic isolator.
The air conditioning may be operated from either 50 Hz or 60 Hz current. Current is distributed through custom PAE electrical panels containing volt AC and volt AC sections, volt and amp meters and individual breakers for functions Two 2 Victron Quattro 8. Electrical panel is fitted with an inverter bypass switch in the event of failure AC Outlets are standard Vimar US format volt AC All Vimar outlets in head compartment, galley, engine room and exterior are GFCI type All external outlets have water proof covers Two 2 Glendinning shore power cord retrieval systems, model CM-7 are provided.
One each for the volt house shore power and air conditioning shore power. Each system to be provided with ' The primary DC system is 24 volts and the secondary system is 12 volts for any equipment that is available in 12 volts only Standard batteries are provided as follows: 24 volt DC house battery bank - Consists of twelve 12 8D, 12 volt AGM Batteries Ah each. Six groups of two 2 batteries each are connected in parallel.
Switching logic to parallel with 24 volt house bank for emergency starting x 2 38 kW Generator starting - Two 2 Group 31 AGM batteries connected in series for 24 volt starting 25 kW Generator starting - Two 2 Group 31 AGM batteries connected in series for 24 volt starting. All Wiring Connections except behind electrical panels to be sealed with "shrink wrap". Connectors to be ring type with closed end seamless construction.
Electrolysis Control All thru hulls to be bonded together with a 6 green wire and tied into the DC grounding system All hardware mounted below water line - i. Rudder shoe to have its own zinc and not tied to bonding system Three 3 zinc plates to be tied into the bonding system "Cross Lock" zinc on end of propeller shafts.
General: N joiner style with cherry and wall coverings as specified Bulkheads to be covered in cherry and wall covering material Furniture pieces such as the nightstands, bunks, settee, mirror frames are to be made in cherry unless otherwise specified Flat surfaces to be done in Toseva NA unless otherwise specified Wall Covering - above the chair rail, selection chosen from Koroseal catalogs Cushions to be covered with owner's choice of Ultraleather Interior steps to all be cherry All locker doors and drawers to have Manship square body with round push button latches Interior overhead panels - Majilite Finesse Natural.
Lined with "cedar wood" Solid non louvered cored doors for heads and staterooms 1" 2. Drawers in the cabins, pilothouse, salon and all other areas are to have a varnished plywood finish All lockers in the galley, heads, laundry room and pilothouse dash area to be white formica interior Lockers in the salon, staterooms and the pilothouse settee and desk area to be cherry veneer interior All book shelves to have stainless steel fiddles All locker doors to have BLUM self closing hinges or equivalent All refers to be fitted with twist locking device All plywood for bulKheads and cabinetry at pilot house level and above to be light weight type, same as N59CP.
Table with light weight stone and stainless steel pedestal Wall sconce at dinette. Main Salon Floors: Entry foyer to have cherry wood flooring. Dining Cherry table large enough to seat x8. Forepeak Chain Locker Shelves: Longitudinal plywood shelves with 5" Lower level Foyer Floors: Cherry Interior wood selection: Cherry cabinetry and wall covering as specified.
Lower Level Guest Cabins Floors: carpet with Soundown underlayment pad Interior wood selection: cherry cabinetry and wall covering as specified Hanging locker interior finish: "cedar wood" natural finish Mattress: standard Queen size Locker interior finish to be cherry Drawer interior finish to be plywood Hull staving to be painted to match overhead material.
Interior of shower to be white molded FRP. It was neither the largest ship ever built, nor the one carrying the greatest number of guns. What made her arguably the most powerful warship of the time was the combined weight of shot that could be fired from the cannon of one side: pounds kg , excluding stormstycken , guns used for firing anti-personnel ammunition instead of solid shot. This was the largest concentration of artillery in a single warship in the Baltic at the time, perhaps in all of northern Europe, and it was not until the s that a ship with more firepower was built.
This large amount of naval artillery was placed on a ship that was quite small relative to the armament carried. By comparison, USS Constitution , a frigate built by the United States years after Vasa , had roughly the same firepower, but was over tonnes heavier. The Constitution , however, belonged to a later era of naval warfare that employed the line of battle -tactic, where ships fought in single file or line ahead while the group as a whole attempted to present the batteries of one side toward the enemy.
The guns would be aimed in the same direction and fire could be concentrated on a single target. In the 17th century, tactics involving organised formations of large fleets had still not been developed. Rather, ships would fight individually or in small improvised groups, and focused on boarding. Vasa , though possessing a formidable battery, was built with these tactics in mind, and therefore lacked a unified broadside with guns that were all aimed in roughly the same direction.
Rather, the guns were intended to be fired independently and were arranged according to the curvature of the hull, meaning that the ship would be bristled with artillery in all directions, covering virtually all angles. Naval gunnery in the 17th century was still in its infancy. Guns were expensive and had a much longer lifespan than any warship. Guns with a lifetime of over a century were not unheard of, while most warships would be used for only 15 to 20 years. In Sweden and many other European countries, a ship would normally not "own" its guns, but would be issued armament from the armory for every campaign season.
Ships were therefore usually fitted with guns of very diverse age and size. What allowed Vasa to carry so much firepower was not merely that an unusually large number of guns were Wood Boat Model Kits Canada Youtuber crammed into a relatively small ship, but also that the 46 main pounder guns were of a new and standardised lightweight design, cast in a single series at the state gun foundry in Stockholm, under the direction of the Swiss-born founder Medardus Gessus.
Two additional pounders, of a heavier and older design, were mounted in the bows, the so-called bow chasers. Four more heavy guns were intended for the stern, but the cannon foundry could not cast guns as fast as the navy yard could build ships, and Vasa waited nearly a year after construction was finished for its armament.
When the ship sailed in August , eight of the planned armament of 72 guns had still not been delivered. All cannons during this time had to be made from individually made moulds that could not be reused, but Vasa's guns had such uniform precision in their manufacturing that their primary dimensions varied by only a few millimetres, and their bores were almost exactly mm 5. The remaining armament of Vasa consisted of eight 3-pounders, six large caliber stormstycken similar to what the English called howitzers for use during boarding actions, and two 1-pound falconets.
Also included on board were kilograms 1, lb of gunpowder and over 1, shot of various types for the guns. As was the custom with warships at the time, parts of Vasa were decorated with sculptures. Residues of paint have been found on many sculptures and on other parts of the ship. The entire ornamentation was once painted in vivid colors. The sides of the beakhead the protruding structure below the bowsprit , the bulwarks the protective railing around the weather deck , the roofs of the quarter galleries , and the background of the transom the flat surface at the stern of the ship were all painted red, while the sculptures were decorated in bright colors, and the dazzling effect of these was in some places emphasised with gold leaf.
Vasa is an example not so much of the heavily gilded sculptures of early Baroque art but rather "the last gasps of the medieval sculpture tradition" with its fondness for gaudy colors, in a style that today would be considered extravagant or even vulgar.
The sculptures are carved out of oak , pine or linden , and many of the larger pieces, like the huge 3-metre 10 ft long figurehead lion, consist of several parts carved individually and fitted together with bolts. Close to sculptures, most of which are concentrated on the high stern and its galleries and on the beakhead, are found on the ship. On the transom are biblical and nationalistic symbols and images.
A particularly popular motif is the lion, which can be found as mascarons originally fitted on the insides of the gunport doors, grasping the royal coat of arms on either side, the figurehead, and even clinging to the top of the rudder. Each side of the beakhead originally had 20 figures though only 19 have actually been found that depicted Roman emperors from Tiberius to Septimius Severus. Overall, almost all heroic and positive imagery is directly or indirectly identified with the king and was originally intended to glorify him as a wise and powerful ruler.
The only actual portrait of the king, however, is located at the very top of the transom in the stern. Here he is depicted as a young boy with long, flowing hair, being crowned by two griffins representing the king's father, Charles IX.
A team of at least six expert sculptors worked for a minimum of two years on the sculptures, most likely with the assistance of an unknown number of apprentices and assistants. Other accomplished artists, like Hans Clausink, Johan Didrichson Tijsen or Thessen in Swedish and possibly Marcus Ledens, are known to have been employed for extensive work at the naval yards at the time Vasa was built, but their respective styles are not distinct enough to associate them directly with any specific sculptures.
The artistic quality of the sculptures varies considerably, and about four distinct styles can be identified. These include some of the most important and prestigious pieces: the figurehead lion, the royal coat of arms, and the sculpture of the king at the top of the transom. Two of the other styles are described as "elegant The fourth and last style, deemed clearly inferior to the other three, is described as "stiff and ungainly" [29] and was done by other carvers, perhaps even apprentices, of lesser skill.
The day was calm, and the only wind was a light breeze from the southwest. The ship was warped hauled by anchor along the eastern waterfront of the city to the southern side of the harbor, where four sails were set, and the ship made way to the east.
The gun ports were open, and the guns were out to fire a salute as the ship left Stockholm. The sheets were cast off, and the ship slowly righted herself as the gust passed.
At Tegelviken, where there is a gap in the bluffs, an even stronger gust again forced the ship onto its port side, this time pushing the open lower gunports under the surface, allowing water to rush in onto the lower gundeck.
The water building up on the deck quickly exceeded the ship's minimal ability to right itself, and water continued to pour in until it ran down into the hold; the ship quickly sank to a depth of 32 m ft only m ft from shore. Survivors clung to debris or the upper masts, which were still above the surface.
Many nearby boats rushed to their aid, but despite these efforts and the short distance to land, 30 people reportedly perished with the ship. Vasa sank in full view of a crowd of hundreds, if not thousands, of mostly ordinary Stockholmers who had come to see the great ship set sail.
The crowd included foreign ambassadors, in effect spies of Gustavus Adolphus' allies and enemies, who also witnessed the catastrophe.
The Council sent a letter to the king the day after the loss, telling him of the sinking, but it took over two weeks to reach him in Poland. Under initial interrogation, he swore that the guns had been properly secured and that the crew was sober.
A full inquest before a tribunal of members of the Privy Council and Admiralty took place at the Royal Palace on 5 September Each of the surviving officers was questioned as was the supervising shipwright and a number of expert witnesses. The object of the inquest was as much or more to find a scapegoat as to find out why the ship had sunk. Whoever the committee might find guilty for the fiasco would face a severe penalty.
Surviving crew members were questioned one by one about the handling of the ship at the time of the disaster. Was it rigged properly for the wind? Was the crew sober? Was the ballast properly stowed? Were the guns properly secured? However, no one was prepared to take the blame. Crewmen and contractors formed two camps; each tried to blame the other, and everyone swore he had done his duty without fault and it was during the inquest that the details of the stability demonstration were revealed.
Next, attention was directed to the shipbuilders. Jacobsson had in fact widened the ship by 1 foot 5 inches c. In the end, no guilty party could be found. The answer Arendt de Groote gave when asked by the court why the ship sank was "Only God knows".
Gustavus Adolphus had approved all measurements and armaments, and the ship was built according to the instructions and loaded with the number of guns specified. In the end, no-one was punished or found guilty for negligence, and the blame effectively fell on Henrik Hybertsson.
Less than three days after the disaster, a contract was signed for the ship to be raised. However, those efforts were unsuccessful. Two ships or hulks were placed parallel to either side above the wreck, and ropes attached to several anchors were sent down and hooked to the ship.
The two hulks were filled with as much water as was safe, the ropes tightened, and the water pumped out. The sunken ship then rose with the ships on the surface and could be towed to shallower waters.
The process was then repeated until the entire ship was successfully raised above water level. Even if the underwater weight of Vasa was not great, the mud in which it had settled made it sit more securely on the bottom and required considerable lifting power to overcome. With a simple diving bell , the team of Swedish and Finnish divers retrieved more than 50 of them.
Such activity waned when it became clear that the ship could not be raised by the technology of the time. However, Vasa did not fall completely into obscurity after the recovery of the guns. The ship was mentioned in several histories of Sweden and the Swedish Navy, and the location of the wreck appeared on harbor charts of Stockholm in the 19th century. In , the navy officer Anton Ludwig Fahnehjelm turned in a request for salvaging rights to the ship, claiming he had located it.
Fahnehjelm was an inventor who designed an early form of light diving suit and had previously been involved in other salvage operations. There were dives made on the wreck in �, and a commercial salvage company applied for a permit to raise or salvage the wreck in , but this was turned down. In , a witness also claimed that his father, a petty officer in the Swedish navy, had taken part in diving exercises on Vasa in the years before World War I.
Among the first things to decompose were the thousands of iron bolts that held the beakhead and much of the sterncastle together, and this included all of the ship's wooden sculptures. Almost all of the iron on the ship rusted away within a few years of the sinking, and only large objects, such as anchors, or items made of cast iron, such as cannonballs, survived. Organic materials fared better in the anaerobic conditions, and so wood, cloth and leather are often in very good condition, but objects exposed to the currents were eroded by the sediment in the water, so that some are barely recognizable.
Of the human remains, most of the soft tissue was quickly consumed by bacteria, fish and crustaceans, leaving only the bones, which were often held together only by clothing, although in one case, hair, nails and brain tissue survived.
The parts of the hull held together by joinery and wooden treenails remained intact for as much as two centuries, suffering gradual erosion of surfaces exposed to the water, unless they were disturbed by outside forces. Eventually the entire sterncastle, the high, aft portion of the ship that housed the officers' quarters and held up the transom, gradually collapsed into the mud with all the decorative sculptures.
The quarter galleries , which were merely nailed to the sides of the sterncastle, collapsed fairly quickly and were found lying almost directly below their original locations.
Human activity was the most destructive factor, as the initial salvage efforts, the recovery of the guns, and the final salvage in the 20th century all left their marks. Peckell and Treileben broke up and removed much of the planking of the weather deck to get to the cannons on the decks below.
Peckell reported that he had recovered 30 cartloads of wood from the ship; these might have included not just planking and structural details but also some of the sculptures which today are missing, such as the life-size Roman warrior near the bow and the sculpture of Septimius Severus that adorned the port side of the beakhead. Construction work in Stockholm harbor usually results in blasting of bedrock, and the resulting tonnes of rubble were often dumped in the harbor; some of this landed on the ship, causing further damage to the stern and the upper deck.
He spent many years probing the waters without success around the many assumed locations of the wreckage. He did not succeed until, based on accounts of an unknown topographical anomaly just south of the Gustav V dock on Beckholmen , he narrowed his search.
In , with a home-made, gravity-powered coring probe, he located a large wooden object almost parallel to the mouth of dock on Beckholmen. The location of the ship received considerable attention, even if the identification of the ship could not be determined without closer investigation. Soon after the announcement of the find, planning got underway to determine how to excavate and raise Vasa.
The Swedish Navy was involved from the start, as were various museums and the National Heritage board, representatives of which eventually formed the Vasa Committee, the predecessor of the Vasa Board.
A number of possible recovery methods were proposed, including filling the ship with ping-pong balls and freezing it in a block of ice, but the method chosen by the Vasa Board which succeeded the Vasa Committee was essentially the same one attempted immediately after the sinking. Divers spent two years digging six tunnels under the ship for steel cable slings, which were taken to a pair of lifting pontoons at the surface.
The work under the ship was extremely dangerous, requiring the divers to cut tunnels through the clay with high-pressure water jets and suck up the resulting slurry with a dredge, all while working in total darkness with hundreds of tonnes of mud-filled ship overhead.
The almost vertical sections of the tunnels near the side of the hull could also potentially collapse and bury a diver inside. Each time the pontoons were pumped full, the cables tightened and the pontoons were pumped out, the ship was brought a metre closer to the surface. In a series of 18 lifts in August and September , the ship was moved from depth of 32 metres ft to 16 metres 52 ft in the more sheltered area of Kastellholmsviken, where divers could work more safely to prepare for the final lift.
The gun ports were closed by means of temporary lids, a temporary replacement of the collapsed sterncastle was constructed, and many of the holes from the iron bolts that had rusted away were plugged. The final lift began on 8 April , and on the morning of 24 April, Vasa was ready to return to the world for the first time in years.
Press from all over the world, television cameras, invited guests on barges and boats, and thousands of spectators on shore watched as the first timbers broke the surface. The ship was then emptied of water and mud and towed to the Gustav V dry dock on Beckholmen, where the ship was floated on its own keel onto a concrete pontoon, on which the hull still stands.
From the end of to December , Vasa was housed in a temporary facility called Wasavarvet "The Vasa Shipyard" , which included exhibit space as well as the activities centred on the ship.
A building was erected over the ship on its pontoon, but it was very cramped, making conservation work awkward. Visitors could view the ship from just two levels, and the maximum viewing distance was in most places only a couple of metres, which made it difficult for viewers to get an overall view of the ship. In , the Swedish government decided that a permanent building was to be constructed, and a design competition was organised. Ground was broken in , and Vasa was towed into the half-finished Vasa Museum in December The museum was officially opened to the public in Vasa posed an unprecedented challenge for archaeologists.
Never before had a four-storey structure, with most of its original contents largely undisturbed, been available for excavation. The ship had to be kept wet in order that it not dry out and crack before it could be properly conserved.
Digging had to be performed under a constant drizzle of water and in a sludge-covered mud that could be more than one metre deep. In order to establish find locations, the hull was divided into several sections demarcated by the many structural beams, the decking and by a line drawn along the centre of the ship from stern to bow.
For the most part, the decks were excavated individually, though at times work progressed on more than one deck level simultaneously. Vasa had four preserved decks: the upper and lower gun decks, the hold and the orlop. Because of the constraints of preparing the ship for conservation, the archaeologists had to work quickly, in hour shifts during the first week of excavation.
The upper gun deck was greatly disturbed by the various salvage projects between and , and it contained not only material that had fallen down from the rigging and upper deck, but also more than three centuries of harbor refuse. The gundecks contained not just gun carriages, the three surviving cannons, and other objects of a military nature, but were also where most of the personal possessions of the sailors had been stored at the time of the sinking.
These included a wide range of loose finds, as well as chests and casks with spare clothing and shoes, tools and materials for mending, money in the form of low-denomination copper coins , privately purchased provisions, and all of the everyday objects needed for life at sea.
Most of the finds are of wood, testifying not only to the simple life on board, but to the generally unsophisticated state of Swedish material culture in the early 17th century.
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